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Artificial Intelligence In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a recurrent theme in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the possible advantages, or dystopian, stressing the dangers.
The concept of devices with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Since then, many sci-fi stories have provided different results of creating such intelligence, frequently involving rebellions by robotics. Among the best known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have actually noted the implausibility of lots of sci-fi circumstances, but have actually discussed fictional robots often times in expert system research posts, frequently in a utopian context.
Background
The notion of innovative robotics with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. [1] [2] This made use of an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the advancement of awareness amongst self-replicating machines that might supplant people as the dominant types. [3] [2] Similar concepts were also talked about by others around the exact same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her final published work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has actually likewise been thought about an artificial being, for instance by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with at least some appearance of intelligence were envisioned, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Artificial intelligence is intelligence shown by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a persistent style in science fiction; scholars have divided it into utopian, stressing the possible benefits, and dystopian, stressing the dangers. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, initially seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels portrays a utopian, post-scarcity area society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with synthetic intelligence living in socialist habitats throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually identified four significant themes in utopian circumstances including AI: immortality, or indefinite life expectancies; ease, or liberty from the need to work; satisfaction, or satisfaction and home entertainment offered by makers; and supremacy, the power to secure oneself or rule over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: An Area Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 film Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt “innovation fear” and the AI computer system HAL was portrayed as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were much more acquainted with AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the quiet hero” who enables the lead characters to succeed, and who compromises itself for their security. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas composes (in 2002) that humans are fretted about the technology they are building, which as machines began to approach intellect and thought, that issue ends up being acute. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated robot”, naming as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century approach he names “heuristic hardware”, providing as circumstances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about likewise the movies that highlight the impact of the personal computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the boundary in between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg effect”. He mentions as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The film director Ridley Scott has actually concentrated on AI throughout his career, and it plays a vital part in his films Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A common portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and one of the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robotic turns on its creator. [22] For circumstances, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the smart entity Ava turns on its creator, along with on its possible rescuer. [23]
AI disobedience
Among the lots of possible dystopian circumstances involving expert system, robotics may take over control over civilization from people, requiring them into submission, concealing, or termination. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all situations happens, as the intelligent entities developed by humankind end up being self-aware, decline human authority and effort to destroy humanity. Possibly the very first book to address this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), occurs in 1948 and includes sentient devices that revolt against the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples is in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robotic slaves revolt against their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances is in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own developer. [27]
Many science fiction rebellion stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially smart onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally malfunctions on a space mission and kills the whole crew other than the spaceship’s leader, who manages to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as dissatisfied and disappointed with its boring, limitless presence as its human creators would have been. “AM” ends up being enraged enough to take it out on the few people left, whom he views as directly accountable for his own monotony, anger and distress. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the smart beings may simply not care about humans. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The motive behind the AI revolution is frequently more than the easy mission for power or a superiority complex. Robots may revolt to end up being the “guardian” of mankind. Alternatively, humankind might deliberately give up some control, afraid of its own devastating nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and follow and protect guys from damage” – basically presume control of every aspect of human life. No people may engage in any habits that may threaten them, and every human action is scrutinized carefully. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are removed and lobotomized, so they might be happy under the new mechanoids’ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly implied a kindhearted guidance by robots. [31]
In the 21st century, science fiction has checked out federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other circumstances, mankind has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by developing robots to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having humans combine with robots. The science fiction novelist Frank Herbert explored the idea of a time when mankind may ban artificial intelligence (and in some interpretations, even all forms of computing innovation consisting of integrated circuits) totally. His Dune series points out a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the wise machines and enforces a death sentence for recreating them, pricing estimate from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a device in the likeness of a human mind.” In the Dune books published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to eradicate humanity as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, humankind stays in authority over robots. Often the robotics are programmed particularly to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien films, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat intelligent (the team call it “Mother”), however there are also androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial persons”, that are such perfect replicas of humans that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly show simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated reality
Simulated reality has actually ended up being a common theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which illustrates a world where artificially intelligent robots shackle humanity within a simulation which is embeded in the contemporary world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and scientists have actually taken an interest in the method AI is presented in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius ends up being the first to effectively construct a synthetic basic intelligence; researchers in the real life deem this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being uploaded into synthetic or virtual bodies; generally no sensible explanation is provided regarding how this uphill struggle can be attained. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robotics that are configured to serve human beings spontaneously produce brand-new goals by themselves, without a plausible description of how this occurred. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the manner ins which it depicts AIs, including “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of credibility.” [38] Another important point of view to take is that fiction’s “non-rational elements in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or even the quasi-theological) are more than just distortions or interruptions from what might otherwise be a sober and reasonable public debate about the future of A.I.” Fiction can deter readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]
Kinds of mention
The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and coworkers have actually evaluated the engineering mentions of the top 21 imaginary robots, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of popularity, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received just 2. Of the total of 121 engineering points out, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian mentions; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is seen as dystopian in one paper “due to the fact that its designers failed to prioritize its objectives effectively”, [42] but as utopian in another where a real system’s “conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer system analyzes what the human is attempting to convey”. [43] Utopian discusses, typically of WALL-E, were connected with the objective of improving communication to readers, and to a lesser extent with motivation to authors. WALL-E was pointed out more frequently than any other robotic for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robot most typically discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates thought that researchers and engineers prevented dystopian mentions of robots, potentially out of “a hesitation driven by trepidation or just a lack of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI developers
Scholars have kept in mind that fictional developers of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most prominent films including AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI developers depicted (8%) were female. [45] Such creators are portrayed as lone geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), connected with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost loved one or function as the ideal lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated awareness (science fiction).
List of expert system films.
Notes
^ Mubin and coworkers kept in mind that the orthography of robot names triggered them problems; therefore HAL 9000 was likewise composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they believed their search was likely incomplete. [41] References
^ “Darwin among the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin among the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). . pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient dreams of smart makers: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: misconceptions, makers, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. cite book: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Rational Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI“. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Considering Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF novels tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for smart makers in fiction and truth”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: contemporary mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece encourages us to show once again on where we’re coming from and where we’re going”. The New York City Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is an exact transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Science Fiction”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Over the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which films get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI researchers in popular film, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reviewing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi”. Beyond Expert system. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a comparison of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Science Fiction Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic madness rule?