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  • Founded Date June 3, 1970
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Expert System Industry In China

The expert system industry in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and innovation as the nation’s primary productive force.

The preliminary stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and came across substantial challenges due to lack of resources and talent. At the starting China was behind many Western countries in terms of AI advancement. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had actually gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has actually steadily developed a nationwide program for expert system advancement and became one of the leading countries in expert system research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” consisting of fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company should lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s rapid AI development has significantly affected Chinese society in many locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, accommodation and food services, and production are the top industries that would be the most impacted by more AI deployment.

The private sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in many elements as there are few present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law resolving AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade constraints planned to limit China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the effects of the Chinese government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of artificial intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research and advancement did not start up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was challenging so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional offering government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study projects has significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the advancement of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, expert system was likewise mentioned in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s advancement of synthetic intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic technology that has become a “focus of global competitors”. [14]:2 The document advised substantial investment in a number of strategic areas associated with AI and required close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the celebration of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is a necessary part to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The same year witnessed the introduction of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council specified the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, as well as public and private investments. [14] Some of the specified inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique consist of the potential of synthetic intelligence for industrial change, much better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across foundational, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of artificial intelligence expanded to various fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research. With the introduction of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the regulations concerning deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including specs for data collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy dialogue with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed issue over AI security dangers, consisting of abuse of information or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors created with generative expert system to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The fourth and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be important to the future of worldwide military and economic power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council aims for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and economic improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the development of artificial intelligence theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to combine state planning and control while some functional versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, developing asymmetric benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a leading research study top priority and ranks AI initially amongst “frontier industries” that the Chinese government aims to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector typically supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI funding generally focused on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The federal government financing also supported multiple AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research showed that, while China is enormously investing in all aspects of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing cars are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to national assistance on establishing China’s high-tech commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and regional industrial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, greatly concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competitors for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private collaborations, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing obligations on AI business, the overall technique to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population generates a huge quantity of available data for business and scientists, which uses an essential advantage in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of web users, producing huge amounts of data for device knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is one of the most extensively employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large of data from its citizens assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to more AI R&D but likewise provides tremendous economic possible drawing in both global and domestic companies to join the AI market. The extreme advancement of the information and interaction innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets in the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures stating that tech business will be obliged to make sure AI-generated content supports the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal responsibility for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced material might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the public, business should seek approval from the CAC to license that the design refuses to answer specific questions relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries containing training information sets frequently utilized for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local business with training data that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese artificial intelligence model DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to respond to questions relating to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most firms [who?] hold optimistic views about AI‘s financial effect on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, traditional industries in China have actually struggled with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, operational costs are anticipated to minimize while a boost in efficiency creates earnings growth. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to overcome adoption barriers including expenses and absence of appropriately trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI advancement because of rising demands for laborers with sophisticated skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial development is focused in coastal areas instead of inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to build a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on the usage of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching various kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report launched later on showed a computer simulation of a similar swarm development finding and destroying a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense innovation and fears of a widening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China intends to utilize AI for exploiting big chests of intelligence, generating a typical operating image, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, decision assistance, software application, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few boundaries exist between Chinese business business, university research laboratories, the military, and the main government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct means of assisting AI advancement concerns and accessing technology that was ostensibly developed for civilian purposes. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI innovation from industrial business and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of data labeling to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially approving it lawful access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese endeavor capital investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from purchasing U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model use prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically because China faces difficulties in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the very same proportion of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study items. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China especially desire to resolve military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the first kids’s academic program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people will remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring vital needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and numerous national federal governments have established legislation resolving information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory framework classifying all kinds of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech business in China are required to categorize their data into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes connected to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI assesses the evidence presented and uses relevant legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually sought to motivate private tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to worldwide AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed out on both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government authorities showed remarkably keen understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and international security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly prioritize cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a desire amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary modification.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China might have exceptional resources and enormous untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western countries to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI creates challenges for holistic national security, consisting of the threats that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause greater oppression of workers and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital accumulation and political power in fewer financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the primary accountable star in the area of generative AI (creating new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI threats escalating military competition between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from expert system have happened. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is normally optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted across 28 nations found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI exceed the threats, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university students discovered that 80% agreed or strongly concurred that AI will do more excellent than harm for society, and 31% believed it ought to be managed by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively used AI facial recognition has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to detect Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a government deliberately using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, specifically by regional municipal police departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.